1. Ethics
Ethics represent the moral principles, values and rules that govern our decisions and actions with respect to what is right and wrong, good or bad.
1.1. Why might there be a problem?
- Ethics writers differ about what is and is not ethically acceptable
- Similar issues arise frequently
- There is the potential to behave unethically in research
- This is constant and it does not just depend on particular situations or methods
1.2. Ethical stances
- Universalism
- Absolute rules about un/acceptable conduct
- Situation ethics
- Case-by-case assessment
- Does the end justify the means?
- Ethical transgression is pervasive
- Virtually all research involves some ethically questionable practices
- Anything goes (more or less)
- Researchers entitled to study anyone in any setting if work has a ‘scientific’ purpose and does not harm participants
1.3. Ethical principles
- Whether there is harm to participants
- Whether there is a lack of informed consent
- Whether there is an invasion of privacy
- Whether deception is involved
1.3.1. Harm to participants
Harm caused by participating in research is usually considered unacceptable.
- Physical harm
- Damage to self-esteem
- Damage to career prospects or future employment
- Revelation of their identity
- Breaking confidentiality
- Stress
1.3.1.1. Rights of participants
- to know that participation is voluntary
- to withdraw from the research at any time
- to discuss the way in which personal data will be gathered, stored, used and its ownership
- to confidentiality and anonymity
- to refuse to answer questions
- to ask questions about research at any time
- to be given access to a summary of findings
1.3.2. Informed consent
- Prospective participants must know
- That they are participants
- What the research process is
- Whether observation techniques or recording equipment will be used
- Participants must be given information that they can understand (typically a form) and time to consider (and discuss) their decision
- You will not be able to conduct your research until you have:
- submitted an ethics form and received approval
- submitted a sample of the informed consent form you will use
- received informed consent from your participants
1.3.2.1. Information sheets often include ?
- The names of researchers and contact details
- What participants are required to do and how much time will be involved
- How their data will be used
- How their data will be stored
- How confidentiality and anonymity will be protected
- What will happen to the data on completion of the project
- The rights of respondents
1.3.3. Invasion of privacy
Privacy is linked to the idea of informed consent
- The research participant does not give up the right to privacy by providing informed consent
- Covert methods are usually considered to be violations of the privacy principle
- The issue of privacy is invariably linked to issues of anonymity and confidentiality in the research process
- Researchers may have to sign confidentiality agreements
- Participants should be given the opportunity to withdraw. With interviews/questionnaires, participants should be able not to answer sensitive questions
1.3.4. Deception
- Deception means not telling the whole truth while not actually telling a lie
- Deception means misrepresenting research so participants will respond naturally
- Deception must be kept to a minimum if it is necessary for the research
- Minimalising its degree and effects as much as possible
- In addition to moral objections to deception,…
- Research participants become wary of being fooled or tricked into providing data.
- This can have potential legal implications
1.4. Legal considerations
- The 1998 Data Protection Act states that personal data must be:
- obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purpose and not further processed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those purposes;
- adequate, relevant, and not excessive in relation to the purpose or purposes for which they are processed;
- not kept longer than necessary.
- Copyright is an intellectual property right.
- GDPR (2018) General Data Protection Regulation puts the emphasis on the individual to safeguard people’s data and to ensure it is used only for the specific purposes it is collected for. Failure to comply can result in large fines.
1.5. Further considerations
- Trust, reciprocity and expectations of transparency, honesty and openness
- Adherence to a Code of Ethics
- Following the appropriate Framework for Research Ethics
- Sharing research findings
- Conflicts of interest and affiliation
1.6. Ethical decision-making
- The boundary between ethical and unethical practices can be blurred
- The problem of deception leading to a lack of informed consent can infect social research
- Some areas of research lack specific guidance
- Internet-based research presents new ethical problems which are still being debated
2. Research Ethics
2.1. What does research ethics concern ?
- the values, rules and guidelines that govern decisions and actions with respect to moral and immoral research practices.
- the choices and decisions that researchers need to take and the dilemmas they can sometimes face.
- Respect for and care of individuals and groups
- Justice in social life
- Integrity of discipline and practice
2.2. A researcher’s ethical responsibilities
- Participants: not to harm or deceive; to respect and care for them
- Funders: provide good quality research on time, on budget, use resources efficiently BUT resist influence of outcomes
- Institution: integrity of reputation
- Profession/fellow researchers: follow appropriate codes of conduct, making it possible for others to continue researching in future
- Stakeholders: those with an interest or stake in your research for example minorities/disadvantaged groups or those who may benefit
- Wider society: increasing understanding and the development of society
- Yourself: not to take unreasonable risks
2.3. Codes of Ethics
- Institutions and professional bodies involved in research will have their own policies and guidelines to which researchers have to adhere
- Researchers have to submit their work to ethics committees in order for their work to be sanctioned